Why Does Borobudur Have 73 Stupas? A Historical and Architectural Analysis

STUPA.sbs | Borobudur Temple, the world's largest Buddhist monument, stands as one of the greatest architectural achievements of ancient Southeast Asia. Built during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty in Central Java between the 8th and 9th centuries CE, the monument is renowned not only for its monumental size and intricate reliefs but also for its carefully designed arrangement of 73 stupas, each carrying profound spiritual significance.

Borobudur contains a total of 73 stupas, consisting of:

72 perforated subsidiary stupas

1 central (main) stupa

Rather than being a decorative feature, this arrangement represents a carefully planned symbolic journey toward enlightenment according to Mahayana Buddhist cosmology.

The 72 smaller stupas surround the central stupa on the temple's three circular terraces, located at the highest level of the monument.

First circular terrace: 32 stupas

Second circular terrace: 24 stupas

Third circular terrace: 16 stupas

Each stupa has a bell-shaped structure with decorative openings. The first two terraces feature diamond-shaped perforations, while the third terrace displays square-shaped openings. Scholars generally interpret this transition in geometric patterns as symbolizing the gradual purification of the human mind on its path toward ultimate wisdom.

Inside every subsidiary stupa sits a seated Buddha statue, most of which depict Dhyani Buddhas in meditation, expressing serenity, wisdom, and spiritual awakening through symbolic hand gestures known as mudras.

At the summit of Borobudur stands the central stupa, the monument's highest and most prominent structure.

Has no perforations.

Measures approximately 9.9 meters in diameter and 7 meters in height.

Symbolizes the ultimate state of Nirvana, representing complete liberation from suffering and the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara).

The central stupa appears empty, a feature that has intrigued historians, archaeologists, and Buddhist scholars for generations.

The Mystery of the Empty Central Stupa

The absence of a Buddha statue inside the main stupa has given rise to several interpretations.

One widely accepted view associates the emptiness with the Mahayana Buddhist concept of Sunyata, or "Emptiness." In Buddhist philosophy, emptiness does not signify nothingness but rather the ultimate reality beyond form, attachment, and conceptual understanding. It represents absolute truth that transcends the material world.

Another theory suggests that the stupa may once have contained a Buddha image that was either never completed, removed, or lost over centuries of natural disasters and abandonment. However, archaeological evidence remains inconclusive.

For this reason, many historians believe that the empty chamber was an intentional element of Borobudur's original spiritual design.

Borobudur was conceived as a three-dimensional representation of the Buddhist universe.

Kamadhatu – the world of desire, where humans remain bound by earthly passions.

Rupadhatu – the world of form, where attachment begins to diminish but physical existence remains.

Arupadhatu – the formless realm, symbolizing the highest level of spiritual consciousness.

The three circular terraces containing the 72 stupas belong to the Arupadhatu, where narrative reliefs disappear, emphasizing meditation, contemplation, and the transcendence of worldly existence.

The central stupa crowns this spiritual ascent, representing the final destination of enlightenment.

Historians estimate that Borobudur was constructed between 780 and 830 CE, during the reign of King Samaratungga of the Sailendra Dynasty.

The monument was built from approximately two million blocks of volcanic andesite stone, assembled without mortar using an advanced interlocking system. This remarkable engineering achievement has allowed Borobudur to withstand earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and more than a millennium of tropical weather.

More than 2,600 carved relief panels, depicting Buddhist teachings, Javanese society, royal life, maritime trade, and the spiritual journey toward enlightenment.

These reliefs make Borobudur one of the world's largest and most comprehensive stone narratives.

After centuries of abandonment, Borobudur was rediscovered in the early nineteenth century beneath layers of volcanic ash and dense tropical vegetation. Major restoration projects were undertaken during the twentieth century, culminating in an international conservation effort supported by the Indonesian government and UNESCO between 1973 and 1983.

In 1991, Borobudur was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognizing its Outstanding Universal Value as a masterpiece of human creative genius and one of the most important Buddhist monuments ever constructed.

Today, Borobudur's 73 stupas continue to symbolize humanity's spiritual journey—from the world of earthly desire to the highest state of wisdom and enlightenment. Every step ascending the monument reflects not merely an architectural progression, but a timeless philosophical path toward inner awakening, making Borobudur one of the most extraordinary cultural treasures in human history. (dea)